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military coalition

Толкование Перевод

1 military coalition

МИД: военная коалиция

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > military coalition
2 military coalition

военная коалиция

Терминологический словарь МИД России > military coalition
3 military coalition

военная коалиция

Politics english-russian dictionary > military coalition
4 military coalition

военная коалиция

Англо-русский дипломатический словарь > military coalition
5 military coalition

военная коалиция [блок]

English-Russian military dictionary > military coalition
6 coalition

n

коалиция; союз ( временный)

to bring down a coalition — разваливать коалицию

to build a coalition — создавать коалицию

to cobble a coalition — сколачивать коалицию

to dominate a coalition — господствовать в коалиции

to enter a coalition with smb — вступать в коалицию с кем-л.

to establish a coalition — создавать коалицию

to forge a coalition — сколачивать коалицию

to form a coalition — создавать коалицию

to gather a coalition — сколачивать коалицию

to go into a coalition with smb — вступать в коалицию с кем-л.

to hold together a coalition — сохранять коалицию

to leave a coalition — выходить из коалиции

to open a coalition — открывать путь к созданию коалиции

to pave the way to a possible coalition — открывать путь к созданию коалиции

to pull out of a coalition — выходить из коалиции

to put together a coalition — сколачивать коалицию

to quit the coalition — выходить из коалиции

to re-establish a coalition — воссоздавать коалицию

to set up a coalition — создавать коалицию

to split a coalition — раскалывать коалицию

to strengthen the coalition — укреплять коалицию

to support the coalition — поддерживать коалицию

to undermine a coalition — подрывать коалицию

to withdraw from the coalition — выходить из коалиции

- ad hoc coalition
- American-led coalition
- antagonistic coalition
- anti-bases coalition
- anti-war coalition
- break-up of a coalition
- broad democratic coalition
- broadly based coalition
- center-left coalition
- center-right coalition
- class coalition
- Coalition for a Democratic Majority
- Coalition of Black Trade Unionists
- Coalition of Labor Union Women
- coalition will hang together
- collapse of a coalition
- Conservative-led coalition
- fragile coalition
- governing coalition
- government coalition
- governmental coalition
- grand coalition
- military coalition
- multiparty coalition
- narrow-based coalition
- opposition coalition
- party coalition
- patchy coalition
- rainbow coalition
- right-wing coalition
- ruling coalition
- temporary coalition
- three-party coalition
- umbrella coalition
- war coalition
- watertight coalition

Politics english-russian dictionary > coalition
7 coalition

коалиция; блок

— military coalition

English-Russian military dictionary > coalition
8 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
9 government

n

1) правительство

2) правление, управление государством, форма правления, руководство

•

to allow smb into the government — допускать кого-л. в правительство

to announce one's new government — объявлять состав своего правительства

to be designated the depositary governments — юр. назначаться в качестве правительств-депозитариев

to borrow from foreign governments — брать внешние займы

to bring down a government — добиваться падения / отставки правительства; свергать правительство

to bring smb into the new government — вводить кого-л. в состав правительства

to bypass the central government — действовать в обход центрального правительства

to choose an independent government — избирать независимое правительство

to close down the government (agencies) — прекращать деятельность (органов) правительства

to destabilize the government — дестабилизировать правительство

to destroy the government by force — насильственно уничтожать правительство

to dismiss / to dissolve a government — отправлять в отставку / распускать правительство

to enter a government — войти в правительство

to establish a government — создавать правительство

to finance local government — финансировать местное самоуправление

to force smb out of the government — заставлять кого-л. уйти из правительства

to force the government into an early general election — заставлять правительство провести досрочные всеобщие выборы

to form a government — формировать правительство

to head the government — возглавлять правительство

to install a government — создавать / ставить у власти правительство

to invite smb to form the government — предлагать кому-л. сформировать правительство

to join the government — войти в состав правительства

to lambaste the government — резко критиковать правительство

to lead a government — возглавлять правительство

to leave the government — выходить из состава правительства

to live under a democratic government — жить под властью демократического правительства

to operate a government — руководить работой правительства

to overthrow a government — свергать правительство

to pledge a government (to) — обязывать правительство (к чему-л.)

to plot to overthrow the government — участвовать в заговоре с целью свержения правительства

to put together a government — формировать правительство

to question the authority of the government — оспаривать власть правительства

to quit the government — выходить из состава правительства

to reconcile with the government — примиряться с правительством

to reorganize a government — реорганизовывать правительство

to represent a government — представлять правительство

to resign from the government — уходить в отставку ( о члене правительства)

to resign one's government to smb — передавать руководство кому-л.

to run a government — руководить работой правительства

to seize a government — арестовать правительство

to select a government — подбирать членов правительства

to set up a government — создавать правительство

to shut down the government (agencies) — прекращать деятельность (органов) правительства

to speak in the name of the government — выступать от имени правительства

to subvert a government — свергать правительство

to sweep a government from power — смещать правительство в результате убедительной победы его противников на выборах

to take over the government — захватывать руководство страной

to topple the government — свергать правительство

to unseat a government — сместить правительство

to unveil a new government — объявлять состав вновь образованного правительства

to withdraw from the government — выходить из состава правительства

- activist government
- all-party government
- anti-crisis government
- at the helm of the government
- authoritarian government
- biracial government
- bourgeois government
- broadly based government
- caretaker government
- center-right government
- central government
- centralized government
- change of government

- city government
- civil government
- civilian government
- clean government
- coalition government
- collapse of a government
- communist government
- composition of the government
- Conservative Government
- constitutional government
- corrupt government
- crisis coalition government
- de facto government
- democratic government
- Democratic Government
- democratically elected government
- depositary government
- devolved government
- dictatorial government
- disaffection with the government
- dissolution of a government
- donor government
- elected government
- establishment of a fully independent government
- fate of the government stands to be decided
- federal government
- for the government of a country
- four-party government
- friendly government
- genocidal government
- government and opposition
- government by crony
- government has collapsed
- government has failed the people
- government has lost its credibility
- government in exile

- government in place
- government in waiting
- government is using its immense power
- government led by...
- government of a country
- government of a state
- government of national agreement
- government of national confidence
- government of national reconciliation
- government of national salvation
- government of national unity
- government of the day
- government recognized de facto
- government recognized de jure
- government survived a rebellion by Conservative MPs
- government will be for 3 months
- government within a government
- handpicked government
- head of government
- Her / His Majesty's Government
- host government
- ideological complexion of the government
- imperialist government
- in defiance of the government
- incoming government
- incompetent government
- independent government
- interim government
- inviolability of the government
- invisible government
- Labour Government
- left-bourgeois government
- left-wing government
- legitimate government
- less government
- liberal government
- local government
- majority government
- maladministration in the government
- military government
- military-backed government
- minority government
- moderate government
- more devolved government
- multiparty government
- municipal government
- national government
- national unity government
- neutral government
- newly-formed government
- on the orders of the government
- one party style of government
- opposing governments
- organs of government
- outgoing government
- overthrow of a government
- overthrown government
- parliamentary government
- post-war government
- power-sharing government
- prime minister's conduct of government
- protest to the government
- provincial government
- provisional government
- puppet government
- racist government
- reactionary government
- recipe for stable government
- refugee government
- republican government
- Republican Government
- reshuffle of the government
- restoration of a government
- rightist government
- right-wing government
- rupture of a coalition government
- scandal-tainted government
- seat of government

- secure government
- self-declared government
- shadow government
- shape of the government
- shared government
- shutdown of the government agencies
- shutdown of the government
- single-party government
- smb's challenge for government
- smb's style of government
- socialist government
- sole legitimate government
- sovereign government
- Soviet government
- stable government
- stop-gap government
- strong government
- student government
- successor government
- system of government
- then government
- totalitarian government
- transition government
- transitional government
- tripartite coalition government
- tsarist government
- uncaring government
- under the government
- under the present government
- US-backed government
- weak government
- white minority government

Politics english-russian dictionary > government
10 strategy

стратегия; см. тж. doctrine, concept, policy

massive (nuclear) reprisal strategy — стратегия «массированного возмездия», стратегия нанесения массированных ответных ЯУ

massive (nuclear) retaliation strategy — стратегия «массированного возмездия», стратегия нанесения массированных ответных ЯУ

— acceptable risk strategy

— accomplished fact strategy

— action-reaction strategy

— active counteraction strategy

— adopt a strategy

— aerospace strategy

— air strategy

— alliance strategy

— allied strategy

— all-out war strategy

— ambiguity strategy

— annihilation strategy

— appropriate reaction strategy

— appropriate response strategy

— area pressure strategy

— asymmetrical containment strategy

— Atlantic strategy

— attrition strategy

— balance of power strategy

— base strategy

— beheading strategy

— block strategy

— Blue Water strategy

— breakthrough strategy

— broad front strategy

— carry out the national military strategy

— coalition defense strategy

— coalition strategy

— conflict strategy

— containment strategy

— continental strategy

— controlled response strategy

— counter containment strategy

— crisis prevention strategy

— dagger-at-the-underbelly strategy

— damage-limiting strategy

— decapitation strategy

— deep-sea strategy

— defense strategy

— defensive strategy

— deferring aggression strategy

— destruction strategy

— deterrence strategy

— deterrent strategy

— develop a strategy

— direct confrontation strategy

— direct strategy

— dissuasion strategy

— double thrust strategy

— facing-all-ways defense strategy

— first-strike strategy

— flexible operations strategy

— flexible option strategy

— flexible reaction strategy

— flexible response counterforce strategy

— flexible response strategy

— force projection strategy

— fortress America strategy

— forward technology strategy

— global strategy

— grab and hold strategy

— graduated response strategy

— grand strategy

— high-cost-of-entry strategy

— high-risk strategy

— independent defense strategy

— indirect strategy

— ink spot strategy

— interventionist strategy

— limited strike strategy

— limited war strategy

— low-risk strategy

— maritime strategy

— massive long-range bombing strategy

— military alliance strategy

— military strategy

— minimax strategy

— minimum deterrence strategy

— minimum medium risk strategy

— mini-nuke strategy

— minor strategy

— missile strategy

— mixed strategy

— multioption nuclear strategy

— multiside selection strategy

— mutual devastation strategy

— mutual-deterrence strategy

— national coordinative operational military strategy

— national security strategy

— national strategy

— naval strategy

— no cities strategy

— nonnuclear strategy

— non-war strategy

— nuclear all-or-nothing strategy

— nuclear option strategy

— nuclear strategy

— nuclear targeting strategy

— nutcracker strategy

— ocean strategy

— offense-only strategy

— offensive forward strategy

— offensive strategy

— operational strategy

— out of city strategy

— Pacific strategy

— peripheral strategy

— phase strategy

— pragmatic strategy

— pre-nuclear strategy

— protracted limited nuclear war strategy

— quiet creeping counterrevolution strategy

— realistic containment strategy

— realistic deterrence strategy

— redirection strategy

— retaliation strategy

— retaliatory strategy

— selective option strategy

— shield and sword strategy

— single weapon strategy

— single-thrust strategy

— sister-city strategy

— small strategy

— space strategy

— stable deterrence strategy

— stalemate strategy

— strike second strategy

— strike-back only strategy

— superior counteraction strategy

— symmetrical containment strategy

— tactical nuclear strategy

— tactical strategy

— total force strategy

— total strategy

— total war strategy

— transmission time strategy

— trigger strategy

— two-up-one-back strategy

— victory-through-airpower strategy

— war-fighting strategy

— war-winning strategy

— wearing-out strategy

English-Russian military dictionary > strategy
11 Chronology

15,000-3,000 BCE Paleolithic cultures in western Portugal.

400-200 BCE Greek and Carthaginian trade settlements on coast.

202 BCE Roman armies invade ancient Lusitania.

137 BCE Intensive Romanization of Lusitania begins.

410 CE Germanic tribes — Suevi and Visigoths—begin conquest of Roman Lusitania and Galicia.

714—16 Muslims begin conquest of Visigothic Lusitania.

1034 Christian Reconquest frontier reaches Mondego River.

1064 Christians conquer Coimbra.

1139 Burgundian Count Afonso Henriques proclaims himself king of Portugal; birth of Portugal. Battle of Ourique: Afonso Henriques defeats Muslims.

1147 With English Crusaders' help, Portuguese seize Lisbon from Muslims.

1179 Papacy formally recognizes Portugal's independence (Pope Alexander III).

1226 Campaign to reclaim Alentejo from Muslims begins.

1249 Last Muslim city (Silves) falls to Portuguese Army.

1381 Beginning of third war between Castile and Portugal.

1383 Master of Aviz, João, proclaimed regent by Lisbon populace.

1385 April: Master of Aviz, João I, proclaimed king of Portugal by Cortes of Coimbra. 14 August: Battle of Aljubarrota, Castilians defeated by royal forces, with assistance of English army.

1394 Birth of "Prince Henry the Navigator," son of King João I.

1415 Beginning of overseas expansion as Portugal captures Moroccan city of Ceuta.

1419 Discovery of Madeira Islands.

1425-28 Prince D. Pedro, older brother of Prince Henry, travels in Europe.

1427 Discovery (or rediscovery?) of Azores Islands.

1434 Prince Henry the Navigator's ships pass beyond Cape Bojador, West Africa.

1437 Disaster at Tangier, Morocco, as Portuguese fail to capture city.

1441 First African slaves from western Africa reach Portugal.

1460 Death of Prince Henry. Portuguese reach what is now Senegal, West Africa.

1470s Portuguese explore West African coast and reach what is now Ghana and Nigeria and begin colonizing islands of São Tomé and Príncipe.

1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas between kings of Portugal and Spain.

1482 Portuguese establish post at São Jorge da Mina, Gold Coast (now Ghana).

1482-83 Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reaches mouth of Congo River and Angola.

1488 Navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and finds route to Indian Ocean.

1492-93 Columbus's first voyage to West Indies.

1493 Columbus visits Azores and Portugal on return from first voyage; tells of discovery of New World. Treaty of Tordesillas signed between kings of Portugal and Spain: delimits spheres of conquest with line 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands (claimed by Portugal); Portugal's sphere to east of line includes, in effect, Brazil.

   King Manuel I and Royal Council decide to continue seeking all-water route around Africa to Asia.

   King Manuel I expels unconverted Jews from Portugal.

1497-99 Epic voyage of Vasco da Gama from Portugal around Africa to west India, successful completion of sea route to Asia project; da Gama returns to Portugal with samples of Asian spices.

1500 Bound for India, Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral "discovers" coast of Brazil and claims it for Portugal.

1506 Anti-Jewish riots in Lisbon.

   Battle of Diu, India; Portugal's command of Indian Ocean assured for some time with Francisco de Almeida's naval victory over Egyptian and Gujerati fleets.

   Afonso de Albuquerque conquers Goa, India; beginning of Portuguese hegemony in south Asia.

   Portuguese conquest of Malacca; commerce in Spice Islands.

1519 Magellan begins circumnavigation voyage.

1536 Inquisition begins in Portugal.

1543 Portuguese merchants reach Japan.

1557 Portuguese merchants granted Chinese territory of Macau for trading factory.

1572 Luís de Camões publishes epic poem, Os Lusíadas.

1578 Battle of Alcácer-Quivir; Moroccan forces defeat army of King Sebastião of Portugal; King Sebastião dies in battle. Portuguese succession crisis.

1580 King Phillip II of Spain claims and conquers Portugal; Spanish rule of Portugal, 1580-1640.

1607-24 Dutch conquer sections of Asia and Brazil formerly held by Portugal.

1640 1 December: Portuguese revolution in Lisbon overthrows Spanish rule, restores independence. Beginning of Portugal's Braganza royal dynasty.

1654 Following Dutch invasions and conquest of parts of Brazil and Angola, Dutch expelled by force.

1661 Anglo-Portuguese Alliance treaty signed: England pledges to defend Portugal "as if it were England itself." Queen Catherine of Bra-ganza marries England's Charles II.

1668 February: In Portuguese-Spanish peace treaty, Spain recognizes independence of Portugal, thus ending 28-year War of Restoration.

1703 Methuen Treaties signed, key commercial trade agreement and defense treaty between England and Portugal.

1750 Pombal becomes chief minister of King José I.

1755 1 November: Massive Lisbon earthquake, tidal wave, and fire.

1759 Expulsion of Jesuits from Portugal and colonies.

1761 Slavery abolished in continental Portugal.

1769 Abandonment of Mazagão, Morocco, last Portuguese outpost.

1777 Pombal dismissed as chief minister by Queen Maria I, after death of José I.

1791 Portugal and United States establish full diplomatic relations.

1807 November: First Napoleonic invasion; French forces under Junot conquer Portugal. Royal family flees to colony of Brazil and remains there until 1821.

1809 Second French invasion of Portugal under General Soult.

1811 Third French invasion of Portugal under General Masséna.

1813 Following British general Wellington's military victories, French forces evacuate Portugal.

1817 Liberal, constitutional movements against absolutist monarchist rule break out in Brazil (Pernambuco) and Portugal (Lisbon, under General Gomes Freire); crushed by government. British marshal of Portugal's army, Beresford, rules Portugal.

   Liberal insurrection in army officer corps breaks out in Cadiz, Spain, and influences similar movement in Portugal's armed forces first in Oporto.

   King João VI returns from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and early draft of constitution; era of constitutional monarchy begins.

1822 7 September: João VI's son Pedro proclaims independence of

   Brazil from Portugal and is named emperor. 23 September: Constitution of 1822 ratified.

   Portugal recognizes sovereign independence of Brazil.

   King João VI dies; power struggle for throne ensues between his sons, brothers Pedro and Miguel; Pedro, emperor of Brazil, abdicates Portuguese throne in favor of his daughter, D. Maria II, too young to assume crown. By agreement, Miguel, uncle of D. Maria, is to accept constitution and rule in her stead.

1828 Miguel takes throne and abolishes constitution. Sections of Portugal rebel against Miguelite rule.

1831 Emperor Pedro abdicates throne of Brazil and returns to Portugal to expel King Miguel from Portuguese throne.

1832-34 Civil war between absolutist King Miguel and constitutionalist Pedro, who abandons throne of Brazil to restore his young daughter Maria to throne of Portugal; Miguel's armed forces defeated by those of Pedro. Miguel leaves for exile and constitution (1826 Charter) is restored.

1834-53 Constitutional monarchy consolidated under rule of Queen Maria II, who dies in 1853.

1851-71 Regeneration period of economic development and political stability; public works projects sponsored by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo.

1871-90 Rotativism period of alternating party governments; achieves political stability and less military intervention in politics and government. Expansion of colonial territory in tropical Africa.

   January: Following territorial dispute in central Africa, Britain delivers "Ultimatum" to Portugal demanding withdrawal of Portugal's forces from what is now Malawi and Zimbabwe. Portugal's government, humiliated in accepting demand under threat of a diplomatic break, falls. Beginning of governmental and political instability; monarchist decline and republicanism's rise.

   Anglo-Portuguese treaties signed relating to delimitation of frontiers in colonial Africa.

1899 Treaty of Windsor; renewal of Anglo-Portuguese defense and friendship alliance.

1903 Triumphal visit of King Edward VII to Portugal.

1906 Politician João Franco supported by King Carlos I in dictatorship to restore order and reform.

1908 1 February: Murder in Lisbon of King Carlos I and his heir apparent, Prince Dom Luís, by Portuguese anarchists. Eighteen-year-old King Manuel II assumes throne.

1910 3-5 October: Following republican-led military insurrection in armed forces, monarchy falls and first Portuguese republic is proclaimed. Beginning of unstable, economically troubled, parliamentary republic form of government.

   May: Violent insurrection in Lisbon overturns government of General Pimenta de Castro; nearly a thousand casualties from several days of armed combat in capital.

   March: Following Portugal's honoring ally Britain's request to confiscate German shipping in Portuguese harbors, Germany declares war on Portugal; Portugal enters World War I on Allied side.

   Portugal organizes and dispatches Portuguese Expeditionary Corps to fight on the Western Front. 9 April: Portuguese forces mauled by German offensive in Battle of Lys. Food rationing and riots in Lisbon. Portuguese military operations in Mozambique against German expedition's invasion from German East Africa. 5 December: Authoritarian, presidentialist government under Major Sidónio Pais takes power in Lisbon, following a successful military coup.

1918 11 November: Armistice brings cessation of hostilities on Western Front in World War I. Portuguese expeditionary forces stationed in Angola, Mozambique, and Flanders begin return trip to Portugal. 14 December: President Sidónio Pais assassinated. Chaotic period of ephemeral civil war ensues.

1919-21 Excessively unstable political period, including January

1919 abortive effort of Portuguese monarchists to restore Braganza dynasty to power. Republican forces prevail, but level of public violence, economic distress, and deprivation remains high.

1921 October: Political violence attains peak with murder of former prime minister and other prominent political figures in Lisbon. Sectors of armed forces and Guarda Nacional Republicana are mutinous. Year of financial and corruption scandals, including Portuguese bank note (fraud) case; military court acquits guilty military insurrectionists, and one military judge declares "the country is sick."

   28 May: Republic overthrown by military coup or pronunciamento and conspiracy among officer corps. Parliament's doors locked and parliament closed for nearly nine years to January 1935. End of parliamentary republic, Western Europe's most unstable political system in this century, beginning of the Portuguese dictatorship, after 1930 known as the Estado Novo. Officer corps assumes reins of government, initiates military censorship of the press, and suppresses opposition.

   February: Military dictatorship under General Óscar Carmona crushes failed republican armed insurrection in Oporto and Lisbon.

   April: Military dictatorship names Professor Antônio de Oliveira Salazar minister of finance, with dictatorial powers over budget, to stabilize finances and rebuild economy. Insurrectionism among military elements continues into 1931.

1930 Dr. Salazar named minister for colonies and announces balanced budgets. Salazar consolidates support by various means, including creation of official regime "movement," the National Union. Salazar engineers Colonial Act to ensure Lisbon's control of bankrupt African colonies by means of new fiscal controls and centralization of authority. July: Military dictatorship names Salazar prime minister for first time, and cabinet composition undergoes civilianization; academic colleagues and protégés plan conservative reform and rejuvenation of society, polity, and economy. Regime comes to be called the Estado Novo (New State). New State's constitution ratified by new parliament, the National Assembly; Portugal described in document as "unitary, corporative Republic" and governance influenced by Salazar's stern personality and doctrines such as integralism, Catholicism, and fiscal conservatism.

1936 Violent instability and ensuing civil war in neighboring Spain, soon internationalized by fascist and communist intervention, shake Estado Novo regime. Pseudofascist period of regime features creation of imitation Fascist institutions to defend regime from leftist threats; Portugal institutes "Portuguese Youth" and "Portuguese Legion."

1939 3 September: Prime Minister Salazar declares Portugal's neutrality in World War II. October: Anglo-Portuguese agreement grants naval and air base facilities to Britain and later to United States for Battle of the Atlantic and Normandy invasion support. Third Reich protests breach of Portugal's neutrality.

   6 June: On day of Allies' Normandy invasion, Portugal suspends mining and export of wolfram ore to both sides in war.

   8 May: Popular celebrations of Allied victory and Fascist defeat in Lisbon and Oporto coincide with Victory in Europe Day. Following managed elections for Estado Novo's National Assembly in November, regime police, renamed PIDE, with increased powers, represses opposition.

1947 Abortive military coup in central Portugal easily crushed by regime. Independence of India and initiation of Indian protests against Portuguese colonial rule in Goa and other enclaves.

1949 Portugal becomes founding member of NATO.

1951 Portugal alters constitution and renames overseas colonies "Overseas Provinces." Portugal and United States sign military base agreements for use of air and naval facilities in Azores Islands and military aid to Lisbon. President Carmona dies in office, succeeded by General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58). July: Indians occupy enclave of Portuguese India (dependency of Damão) by means of passive resistance movement. August: Indian passive resistance movement in Portuguese India repelled by Portuguese forces with loss of life. December: With U.S. backing, Portugal admitted as member of United Nations (along with Spain). Air force general Humberto Delgado, in opposition, challenges Estado Novo's hand-picked successor to Craveiro Lopes, Admiral Américo Tomás. Delgado rallies coalition of democratic, liberal, and communist opposition but loses rigged election and later flees to exile in Brazil. Portugal joins European Free Trade Association (EFTA).

   January and February: Estado Novo rocked by armed African insurrection in northern Angola, crushed by armed forces. Hijacking of Portuguese ocean liner by ally of Delgado, Captain Henrique Galvão. April: Salazar defeats attempted military coup and reshuffles cabinet with group of younger figures who seek to reform colonial rule and strengthen the regime's image abroad. 18 December: Indian army rapidly defeats Portugal's defense force in Goa, Damão, and Diu and incorporates Portugal's Indian possessions into Indian Union. January: Abortive military coup in Beja, Portugal.

1965 February: General Delgado and his Brazilian secretary murdered and secretly buried near Spanish frontier by political police, PIDE.

1968 August and September: Prime Minister Salazar, aged 79, suffers crippling stoke. President Tomás names former cabinet officer Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor. Caetano institutes modest reforms in Portugal and overseas.

1971 Caetano government ratifies amended constitution that allows slight devolution and autonomy to overseas provinces in Africa and Asia. Right-wing loyalists oppose reforms in Portugal. 25 April: Military coup engineered by Armed Forces Movement overthrows Estado Novo and establishes provisional government emphasizing democratization, development, and decolonization. Limited resistance by loyalists. President Tomás and Premier Caetano flown to exile first in Madeira and then in Brazil. General Spínola appointed president. September: Revolution moves to left, as President Spínola, thwarted in his program, resigns.

   March: Military coup by conservative forces fails, and leftist response includes nationalization of major portion of economy. Polarization between forces and parties of left and right. 25 November: Military coup by moderate military elements thwarts leftist forces. Constituent Assembly prepares constitution. Revolution moves from left to center and then right.

   March: Constitution ratified by Assembly of the Republic. 25 April: Second general legislative election gives largest share of seats to Socialist Party (PS). Former oppositionist lawyer, Mário Soares, elected deputy and named prime minister.

1977-85 Political pendulum of democratic Portugal moves from center-left to center-right, as Social Democratic Party (PSD) increases hold on assembly and take office under Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. July

1985 elections give edge to PSD who advocate strong free-enterprise measures and revision of leftist-generated 1976 Constitution, amended modestly in 1982.

1986 January: Portugal joins European Economic Community (EEC).

1987 July: General, legislative elections for assembly give more than 50 percent to PSD led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva. For first time, since 1974, Portugal has a working majority government.

1989 June: Following revisions of 1976 Constitution, reprivatization of economy begins, under PS government.

   January: Presidential elections, Mário Soares reelected for second term. July: General, legislative elections for assembly result in new PSD victory and majority government.

   January-July: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). December: Tariff barriers fall as fully integrated Common Market established in the EEC.

   November: Treaty of Maastricht comes into force. The EEC officially becomes the European Union (EU). Portugal is signatory with 11 other member-nations.

   October: General, legislative elections for assembly result in PS victory and naming of Prime Minister Guterres. PS replace PSD as leading political party. November: Excavations for Lisbon bank uncover ancient Phoenician, Roman, and Christian ruins.

   January: General, presidential elections; socialist Jorge Sampaio defeats PSD's Cavaco Silva and assumes presidency from Dr. Mário Soares. July: Community of Portuguese Languages Countries (CPLP) cofounded by Portugal and Brazil.

   May-September: Expo '98 held in Lisbon. Opening of Vasco da Gama Bridge across Tagus River, Europe's longest (17 kilometers/ 11 miles). June: National referendum on abortion law change defeated after low voter turnout. November: National referendum on regionaliza-tion and devolution of power defeated after another low voter turnout.

   October: General, legislative elections: PS victory over PSD lacks clear majority in parliament. Following East Timor referendum, which votes for independence and withdrawal of Indonesia, outburst of popular outrage in streets, media, and communications of Portugal approves armed intervention and administration of United Nations (and withdrawal of Indonesia) in East Timor. Portugal and Indonesia restore diplomatic relations. December: A Special Territory since 1975, Colony of Macau transferred to sovereignty of People's Republic of China.

   January-June: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the EU; end of Discoveries Historical Commemoration Cycle (1988-2000).

   United Nations forces continue to occupy and administer former colony of East Timor, with Portugal's approval.

   January: General, presidential elections; PS president Sampaio reelected for second term. City of Oporto, "European City of Culture" for the year, hosts arts festival. December: Municipal elections: PSD defeats PS; socialist prime minister Guterres resigns; President Sampaio calls March parliamentary elections.

   1 January: Portugal enters single European Currency system. Euro currency adopted and ceases use of former national currency, the escudo. March: Parliamentary elections; PSD defeats PS and José Durão Barroso becomes prime minister. Military modernization law passed. Portugal holds chairmanship of Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).

   May: Municipal law passed permitting municipalities to reorganize in new ways.

   June: Prime Minister Durão Barroso, invited to succeed Romano Prodi as president of EU Commission, resigns. Pedro Santana Lopes becomes prime minister. European Parliament elections held. Conscription for national service in army and navy ended. Mass grave uncovered at Academy of Sciences Museum, Lisbon, revealing remains of several thousand victims of Lisbon earthquake, 1755.

   February: Parliamentary elections; PS defeats PSD, socialists win first absolute majority in parliament since 1975. José Sócrates becomes prime minister.

   January: Presidential elections; PSD candidate Aníbal Cavaco Silva elected and assumes presidency from Jorge Sampaio. Portugal's national soccer team ranked 7th out of 205 countries by international soccer association. European Union's Bologna Process in educational reform initiated in Portugal.

   July-December: Portugal holds presidency of the Council of the European Union. For reasons of economy, Portugal announces closure of many consulates, especially in France and the eastern US. Government begins official inspections of private institutions of higher education, following scandals.

2008 January: Prime Minister Sócrates announces location of new Lisbon area airport as Alcochete, on south bank of Tagus River, site of air force shooting range. February: Portuguese Army begins to receive new modern battle tanks (Leopard 2 A6). March: Mass protest of 85,000 public school (primary and secondary levels) teachers in Lisbon schools dispute recent educational policies of minister of education and prime minister.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Chronology
12 force

1. n
1) сила, мощь

2) действенность; действие, воздействие (соглашения, закона и т.п.)

3) применение силы, насилие, принуждение

4) pl войска, вооруженные силы; вооружения

5) группа

6) сила (производительная, политическая и т.п.); фактор

7) численность

8) (the Force) полиция (особ. Великобритании)

•

to abandon the use of force — отказываться от применения силы

to abstain from force — воздерживаться от применения силы

to acquire constitutional force — приобретать конституционную силу

to alert one's armed forces — приводить вооруженные силы в боевую готовность

to apply force — применять силу

to authorize the use of force — санкционировать применение силы

to avoid force — избегать применения силы

to awaken forces — пробуждать силы

to balance conventional forces — устанавливать равновесие обычных вооружений ( в Европе)

to be in force — иметь (юридическую) силу; оставаться в силе

to be the first to use force — использовать силу первым

to beef up one's military forces — укреплять свои вооруженные силы

to believe in force — быть сторонником применения насилия

to bring an agreement into force — вводить соглашение в силу

to build up military forces — наращивать военную мощь; сосредоточивать войска

to cease to be in force — утрачивать силу

to change the international balance of forces — изменять международное соотношение сил

to clear rebel forces from somewhere — очищать какой-л. район от войск мятежников

to come into force — вступать в силу

to commit US forces to the Gulf — направлять вооруженные силы США в район Персидского залива

to consolidate forces — консолидировать силы

to continue in force — оставаться в силе; действовать (о законе и т.п.)

to cut back the forces — сокращать силы

to disband / to dismantle forces — демобилизовывать / распускать войска

to distort the balance of forces — искажать соотношение сил

to do work for security forces — сотрудничать с силами безопасности

to encourage all progressive forces (to) — поощрять / поддерживать все прогрессивные силы

to endorse the use of military force — одобрять применение военной силы

to enhance the imbalance in military forces — увеличивать разрыв в вооруженных силах

to enter a city in force — брать город приступом; вводить в город крупные воинские формирования

to enter into force — вступать в силу

to expand one's armed forces — увеличивать свои вооруженные силы

to form a new invasion force — формировать интервенционный корпус

to forswear the use of force — отказываться от использования силы

to give freer rein to market forces — давать большую свободу силам рынка

to have binding force — иметь обязательную силу

to have no force — быть недействительным; не иметь силы

to improve one's defense forces — совершенствовать свои силы самообороны

to improve the safety of the UN forces — укреплять безопасность сил ООН

to join forces — объединяться; объединять силы

to join forces with smb — объединять силы с кем-л.

to join the forces — вступать в армию

to keep forces on red alert — держать вооруженные силы в состоянии повышенной боевой готовности

to limit forces — ограничивать численность войск

to lose legal force — утрачивать законную силу

to maintain military forces — содержать войска

to maintain the balance of forces — поддерживать равновесие / соотношение сил

to mandate a multinational force — санкционировать создание многонациональных сил

to mass forces — сосредоточивать войска

to modernize one's forces — модернизировать свои вооруженные силы

to order the armed forces into action — отдавать приказ войскам перейти к боевым действиям

to place forces on alert — приводить вооруженные силы в состояние боевой готовности

to put down by brutal force — подавлять грубой силой

to put in force — осуществлять, проводить в жизнь; вводить в действие

to put the armed forces on full alert — приводить вооруженные силы в состояние полной боевой готовности

to rally forces — сплачивать силы

to reduce conventional forces in / throughout Europe — сокращать количество войск и обычных вооружений в Европе

to refrain from using force — воздерживаться от применения силы

to rely on military force — полагаться на военную силу

to remain in force — оставаться в силе, действовать (о законе и т.п.)

to remove smb by force — свергать кого-л.; насильственно отстранять кого-л. от власти

to reshape one's armed forces — реорганизовывать свои вооруженные силы

to resort to force — прибегать к силе / насилию

to retaliate with military force — наносить ответный военный удар

to rule a country by sheer force — управлять страной, опираясь исключительно на силу

to seek negotiated reductions in conventional forces — добиваться сокращения обычных вооружений путем переговоров

to send an observer force into a country — направлять группу наблюдателей в страну

to send in ground forces — направлять сухопутные войска в страну

to settle smth by military force — решать что-л. с помощью применения военной силы

to set up one's own armed forces — создавать собственные вооруженные силы

to shore up forces — укреплять силы

to strengthen the forces of peace — укреплять силы мира

to suppress smth by brute force — подавлять что-л. грубой силой

to switch forces — перебрасывать вооруженные силы

to take on the peace-keeping force — принимать бой с силами по поддержанию мира

to take recourse to force — прибегать к силе / насилию

to take smth by force — захватывать что-л. силой

to thin one's forces — сокращать свои войска

to threaten force — угрожать применением силы

to trim one's forces — сокращать численность своих войск

to unite forces — объединять силы

to use force against smb — использовать силу против кого-л.

to use armed forces — использовать вооруженные силы

to use excessive force — злоупотреблять применением силы

to use reasonable force — применять силу оправданно

to weaken forces — ослаблять силы

to withdraw forces from... — выводить войска из...

- Determined Force
- accelerated development of productive forces
- active forces
- activities of forces
- actual force
- advance force
- aggressive forces
- aggressor forces
- air forces
- alignment of forces
- alliance of the forces
- allied forces
- allocation of forces
- anti-aircraft forces
- anti-colonialist forces
- anti-fascist forces
- anti-government forces
- anti-kidnap force
- anti-monopoly forces
- anti-national forces
- anti-popular forces
- anti-war forces
- armed forces of a country
- armed forces
- assault force
- Atlantic Nuclear Force
- balance of forces

- basic productive force
- binding force
- bomber forces
- border forces
- border-security forces
- brutal force
- build-up forces
- build-up of forces
- by force
- by sheer force
- carrier striking force
- Central American task force
- character of the armed forces
- coalition forces
- combatant forces
- combined forces
- Commonwealth Military Force
- competing forces
- competition forces
- compulsory force
- conditions of entry into force
- conservative forces
- consistent force
- consolidation of all forces
- contributor to the multinational force
- Conventional Force in Europe
- conventional forces
- correlation of forces
- crack forces
- cross-border force
- crude force
- deep cuts in conventional forces
- defense forces
- democratic forces
- determining force in social development
- deterrent force
- directing force
- display of force
- disquiet in the armed forces
- division of political forces
- dominant force
- economic force
- effective forces
- elemental forces of nature
- enforcement forces
- entry into force

- external force
- extraction force
- follow-on force
- force is not the answer
- force of a clause
- force of a treaty
- force of an agreement
- force of argument
- force of arms
- force of example
- force of law
- force of occupation
- force of public opinion
- force of weaponry
- force to be reckoned with
- forces in the field
- forces of aggression and war
- forces of flexible response
- forces of internal and external reaction
- forward-based forces
- free play of democratic forces
- full force of the treaty
- general purpose forces
- ground forces
- guiding force
- hired labor force
- IFOR
- in force
- in full force
- independent force
- inequitable relationship of forces
- influential force
- intermediate range forces
- international balance of forces
- international peace-keeping forces
- internationalist forces
- interplay of political forces
- interposing force
- invasion forces
- irregular forces
- joint NATO armed forces
- labor force
- land forces
- landing force
- lawful use of force
- leading force in smth
- leading force
- left-wing forces
- legal force
- liberation forces
- local forces
- logistical forces
- main force
- major force
- mandatory force
- manifestation of force
- material force
- member of a peace-keeping force
- military force
- monetary forces
- motive force
- moving force
- multilateral forces
- mutinous forces
- mutual non-use of military force
- national forces
- national liberation forces
- national political forces
- natural forces
- nature of forces
- naval forces
- noneconomic forces
- non-use of force
- nuclear forces
- nuclear strike force
- obligatory force of international treaties
- observer force
- occupation force
- occupying force
- of legal force
- on entry into force
- operation of market forces
- operational forces
- opposing forces
- organizing force
- pan-Arab force
- paramilitary forces
- patriotic forces
- peace forces
- Peace Implementation Force
- peace-keeping forces
- peace-safeguarding forces
- people's armed forces of liberation
- phased withdrawal of the forces
- police force
- policy of force
- political force
- posture of forces
- potent force
- powerful force
- professionally led force
- progressive forces
- pro-independence forces
- proportions of forces
- punitive forces
- quick-reaction force
- Rapid Deployment Force
- Rapid Reaction Force
- rapid-action force
- RDF
- rebel forces
- recourse to force
- reduction in the armed forces
- regional security forces
- regrouping of forces
- relationship of forces
- reserve force
- reserve of the forces
- resistance forces
- resort to force
- retaliatory forces
- revanchist forces
- revolutionary forces
- rightist forces
- right-wing forces
- rough parity of forces
- ruling forces
- sea forces
- sea-based strategic missile forces
- second-strike force
- security forces
- self-defense forces
- SFOR
- shifts in the alignment of forces
- show of force

- size of the armed forces
- social and political forces
- social forces
- socio-political forces
- special forces
- spontaneous force
- Stabilization Force
- strategic air forces
- strategic forces
- Strategic Rocket Force
- strength of the armed forces
- strike force
- striking force
- suppression by force
- task force
- territorial force
- theater nuclear forces
- third force
- threat of force

- TNF
- ultra-right forces
- UN buffer force
- UN Emergency Force
- UN observer force
- unification of forces
- unification of the armed force under a single command
- unified forces
- unilateral cuts in smb's forces
- United Nation Protection Force
- United Nations forces
- United Nations peace-keeping forces
- unity of forces
- UNPROFOR
- use of military forces
- use of preemptive force
- vital force
- voluntary military forces
- weakening of forces
- with political forces splintering
- withdrawal of forces
- without resort to force
- work force
- world market forces 2. v
заставлять, принуждать, вынуждать

to force smb out — 1) вытеснять кого-л. 2) отстранять кого-л. от власти

Politics english-russian dictionary > force
13 government

n

1) (часто Government) правительство

- head of government

- collapse of a government

- composition of the government

- resignation of the government

- accept the resignation of the government

- reshuffle of the government

- succession of government

- government recognized de jure

- government recognized de facto

- government by consent

- government by crony

- for the government of a country

- under government control

- be designated the Depositary Governments

- be dropped from the government

- bring to overthrow the government

- bring to topple the government

- bring to oust the government

- communicate with the government

- defy the government

- enter the government

- set up a government

- form a government

- win a mandate to form a new government

- lambaste the government

- recognize the government

- represent a government

- reshuffle a government

- shake up a government

- speak in the name of the government

- by instruction of my government

- I am authorized by my government

- my government instructed me

- the government fell

2) форма правления

3) управление, руководство

- system of government

- organs of government

- inviolability of the government

- resign one's government to smb.

4) провинция (управляемая губернатором); штат

•

- national-unity government

- government quarters

- liberal government

- late government

- war-time government

- government department

- national-salvation government

- government statement

- titular government

- multiparty government

- puppet government

- centre-left government

- His Majesty's Government

- place the government in caretaker status

- government of a state

- provisional government

- coalition majority government

- legal government

- biracial government

- centralized government

- rupture of a coalition government

- Soviet government

- overthrown government

- government coalition

- depositary government

- government -owned

- refugee government

- recognized government

- sovereign government

- invisible government

- revolutionary government

- transition government

- coalition government

- antipopular government

- one-party government

- democratic government

- constitutional government

- government circles

- caretaker government

- government award

- centre-right government

- cardboard government

- minority government

- recognize as sole legal government

- authoritarian government

- US-backed government

- tsarist government

- legitimate government

- government party

- republican government

- presidential government

- autocratic government

- handpicked government

- federal government

- Her Majesty's Government

- national government

- Labour government

- incoming government

- interim government

- transmit a government statement by radio

- representative government

- government platform

- government agencies

- Conservative government

- local government

- military government

- responsible government

- parliamentary government

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > government
14 MCEC

1) Военный термин: Marine Corps Education Center, Military Child Education Center

2) Религия: Mennonite Church Eastern Canada

3) Университет: Measurement and Control Engineering Center

4) Физиология: Murine Cardiac Endothelial Cell line

5) Фирменный знак: Motor City Electro Company

6) Деловая лексика: Managed Competition Employee Committee, Mid- Carolina Electric Cooperative, Ministerial Conference on Electronic Commerce

7) Образование: Michigan Cosmetologist Education Committee, Michigan Federated Chapters of the Council for Exceptional Children, Monroe County Education Coalition

8) Общественная организация: Military Child Education Coalition

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > MCEC
15 force(s)

сила; группа; группировка; формирования; части и соединения [подразделения]; мор. отряд; соединение; pl. войска, силы; вооруженные силы, ВС; форсировать

ACE mobile force(s), Air — мобильные ВВС ОВС НАТО в Европе

ACE mobile force(s), Land — мобильные СВ ОВС НАТО в Европе

Air forces, Gulf — Бр. ВВС в районе Персидского залива

Air forces, Northern Army Group BBC — Северной группы армий (ОВС НАТО в Европе)

Allied forces, Central [Northern, Southern] Europe — ОВС НАТО на Центрально-Европейском [Северо-Европейском, Южно-Европейском] ТВД

Allied forces, Europe OBC — НАТО в Европе

Allied Land forces, Northern [Southern] Europe — ОСВ НАТО на Северо-Европейском [Южно-Европейском] ТВД

Allied Naval forces, Northern [Southern] Europe — ОВМС НАТО на Северо-Европейском [Южно-Европейском] ТВД

carrier submarine detection [search] and striking force — ПЛ авианосная поисково-ударная группа

earmarked (for assignment) forces — войска [силы], выделенные [предназначенные] для передачи в оперативное подчинение (командования НАТО)

insert a force (into the area) — высаживать десант; десантировать (часть, подразделение)

Marine (Corps) land combat forces — наземные боевые силы МП

Marine (Corps) operating forces — оперативные силы МП

Mobile ACE force (Land) — сухопутный компонент мобильных сил ОВС НАТО в Европе

mobile logistical (support) force — соединение сил [судов] подвижного тылового обеспечения (ВМС)

mobile logistics (support) force — соединение сил [судов] подвижного тылового обеспечения (ВМС)

NATO-earmarked (for assignment) forces — войска, выделенные [предназначенные] для передачи в оперативное подчинение командования НАТО

On-Call Naval force, Mediterranean — оперативное соединение ОВМС НАТО на Средиземном море для действий по вызову

rapid deployment force, Air — авиационный компонент СВР

rapid deployment force, Army — сухопутный компонент СВР

rapid deployment force, Navy — военноморской компонент СВР

special service force (mobile command) — Кан. группа войск специального назначения (мобильного командования)

Standing Naval force, Atlantic — постоянное оперативное соединение ОВМС НАТО на Атлантике

UN Peace Keeping forces, Cyprus — ВС ООН по поддержанию мира на Кипре

US forces, Europe — ВС США в Европейской зоне

— ACE mobile forces

— active duty force

— active duty ground forces

— active forces

— active strategic airlift forces

— ad hoc force

— advance covering force

— advanced force

— aeronuclear force

— aerospace forces

— Aerospace Security force

— Aerospace Special Operations forces

— Aerospace Strategic Defensive forces

— air and missile defense forces

— air assault forces

— air base forces

— air cavalry forces

— air combat forces

— air defense force

— Air Fleet Marine forces

— Air Force forces

— Air Force general purpose combat forces

— air force

— Air forces

— air intelligence force

— air logistics forces

— air maneuver forces

— air materiel forces

— air mechanized forces

— air mobility forces

— Air Self-Defense force

— air service forces

— Air Special forces

— air striking force

— air support force

— air transport force

— air transported force

— airborne fighting force

— airborne force

— aircraft alert force

— aircraft carrier strike force

— airlift force

— airlift mine-sweeping forces

— air-mission force

— airmobile forces

— airmobile reaction force

— airmobile search force

— airspace forces

— alarm force

— alert force

— Allied Air forces OBBC

— Allied Atlantic forces OBC

— Allied Canadian forces

— allied expeditionary forces

— allied force

— Allied forces OBC

— Allied mobile forces

— Allied mobile nuclear forces

— Allied Naval Attack forces

— Allied Naval forces OBMC

— Allied On-Call Naval force

— Allied Tactical Air force

— all-nuclear submarine force

— all-regular forces

— All-Volunteer forces

— ambush force

— amphibious assault force

— amphibious invasion forces

— amphibious striking forces

— antiaircraft carrier force

— antiguerilla forces

— antimissile force

— antisabotage force

— antisubmarine attack carrier force

— antisubmarine force

— antiterrorist forces

— area damage control forces

— Armed forces of the Crown

— Armed forces of the US

— Armed forces

— armored forces

— armored ground-gaining forces

— armoured breaching force

— Army air defense forces

— Army Cadet forces

— Army combat forces

— army field forces

— Army forces

— Army general purpose combat forces

— Army Group Air forces

— Army land forces

— Army landing force

— Army light forces

— assault force

— assault landing forces

— assigned forces

— ASW forces

— ASW strategic defensive forces

— Atlantic Air Defense force

— Atlantic force

— attack force

— attack helicopter task force

— attack submarine force

— augmentation forces

— augmentation reserve force

— auxiliary cadet forces

— auxiliary forces

— auxiliary naval force

— aviation engineer force

— backup alert force

— backup forces

— balanced collective forces

— balanced forces

— barrier forces

— base defense force

— base force

— baseline force

— battle tank force

— battlefield forces

— blocking force

— blue forces

— blue-water force

— BM force

— bomber force

— bomber-missile force

— border-security forces

— breaching force

— breakthrough force

— bridgehead covering forces

— British forces

— build-up force

— build-up forces

— capital intensive forces

— career intensive force

— carrier air forces

— carrier battle force

— carrier force

— carrier search and attack force

— carrier striking force

— carrier-based naval air forces

— cat's-paw force

— Central Air Defense force

— citizens military forces

— civilian work force

— clandestine forces

— clerical stenographic force

— coalition forces

— coast missile/cannon forces

— coastal force

— collective forces OBC

— combat air force

— combat engineer forces

— combat force

— combat logistics forces

— combat maneuver force

— combat support and service forces

— combat support forces

— combative force

— combined air forces

— Combined Cadet force

— combined force

— combined land forces

— combined naval forces

— combined service forces

— commando force

— committed force

— Commonwealth Military forces

— communications and electronics forces

— composite air strike force

— contact force

— containing force

— contingency force

— conventional armed forces

— corps group force

— counterforce-capable forces

— counterinsurgency forces

— counterintelligence force

— countermove force

— counterpenetration force

— counterstrike force

— covering force

— covert forces

— credible strategic deterrent forces

— crossing force

— cruiser-destroyer force

— custodian force

— cutoff force

— cutting edge forces

— D-day forces

— deep penetration forces

— defending force

— defense forces

— defensive air force

— defensive forces

— delaying force

— deployable forces

— deployed forces

— destruction force

— detached force

— deterrent forces

— deterrent-oriented nuclear forces

— development forces

— direct pressure forces

— disengagement forces

— district forces

— divert forces from

— division ready force

— divisional forces

— draw off enemy forces

— dual-based forces

— dual-capable forces

— dual-purpose forces

— early readiness forces

— earmarked for assignment on mobilization forces

— economize forces on one front

— economy force

— effective forces

— emergency reaction forces

— emergency recovery forces

— encircling force

— enemy-oriented force

— enhanced combined arms force

— enveloping force

— erode enemy forces

— escort forces

— establish a force ashore

— European Defense forces

— European nuclear forces

— European theater ground forces

— Eurostrategic nuclear forces

— EW forces

— execute force

— expeditionary forces

— expeditionary lodgement forces

— experimental naval forces

— exploiting force

— external force

— extraterrestrial defense forces

— extraterritorial intervention forces

— fast carrier force

— fast landing force

— field force

— field forces

— field tactical force

— fighter bomber attack force

— firing reconnaissance force

— fixing force

— flank covering force

— Fleet Marine Air force

— Fleet Marine force

— Fleet Submarine forces

— Fleet Surface forces

— fleet-based air force

— flexible response force

— flying forces

— follow and support forces

— follow-on forces

— follow-up forces

— footmobile forces

— force back

— force down

— force of arms

— force off

— force out

— forces allocated to NATO

— forces from outside the area

— forces with colours

— foreign-stationed forces

— forward area defensive forces

— forward combat forces

— forward forces

— forward frontier defense forces

— forward tactically committed forces

— forward-based forces

— fragment forces

— friendly forces

— frontier-guarding force

— front-line forces

— garrison forces

— general covering force

— general nuclear war force

— general purpose forces

— general purpose strategic forces

— general support forces

— ground combat forces

— ground forces

— ground mobile forces

— ground-gaining forces

— guard force

— guerrilla force

— Gurkha field force

— heliborne forces

— helicopter assault force

— Her Majesty forces

— high-mix force

— holding force

— Home Defence Air force

— Home Defence forces

— Home forces

— Home Service forces

— hunter-killer force

— hydrofoil assault force

— immediate reaction force

— immediate ready force

— immediate reserve forces

— in force

— incoming force

— indigenous forces

— infantry force

— initial protective forces

— initial reaction forces

— in-place forces

— instant-reaction forces

— insurgent paramilitary forces

— insurgent tactical forces

— integrated combined arms force

— Interallied Nuclear force

— intercontinental attack forces

— intercontinental forces

— intermediate range nuclear forces

— international forces

— international military forces

— International Peace force

— interservice force

— intervention forces

— invading force

— invasion force

— investing force

— invulnerable second strike forces

— irregular forces

— Joint Air Defense force

— joint expeditionary force

— joint forces

— Joint NATO forces

— joint nuclear forces

— joint unconventional warfare forces

— land forces

— Land Marine forces

— land special security forces

— land-based air forces

— land-based force

— land-based naval air force

— land-based strategic missile forces

— land-based strategic offensive forces

— landing force

— left-in-contact forces

— light naval forces

— linked-up force

— link-up force

— local forces

— local police forces

— lodgement forces

— logistics support forces

— long-range attack forces

— long-range nuclear strike force

— long-range theater nuclear forces

— MAC force

— main attack force

— main battle area forces

— main battle forces

— main defensive forces

— main fighting forces

— major allied force

— major forces

— makeshift force

— maneuver and exploitation force

— maneuver force

— maneuvering force

— maneuver-oriented force

— Marine Air forces

— Marine amphibious force

— Marine Corps operating forces not otherwise assigned

— Marine Corps Security forces

— Marine Corps Service forces

— Marine Defense forces

— Marine expeditionary force

— Marine ground forces

— maritime forces

— maritime response force

— Maritime Self-Defense force

— massed threat armor force

— master-at-arms force

— match forces

— M-day forces

— M-day mobile ground forces

— mechanized force

— member air forces

— member forces

— Middle East force

— military air forces

— military airlift forces

— military force

— mine-sweeping forces

— missile defense forces

— missile force

— mixed fighter force

— mixed force

— mixed silo-mobile field launcher missile forces

— mobile air forces

— mobile AT force

— mobile counterattack forces

— mobile exploiting forces

— mobile forces

— mobile forward forces

— mobile land forces

— mobile maritime forces

— mobile nuclear forces

— mobile striking force

— mobile support force

— mobile world-wide striking force

— mobility forces

— mobility support forces

— mobilization forces

— motorized rifle forces

— mountain infantry forces

— mounted force

— multilateral forces

— multilateral nuclear forces

— multimission forces

— multinational forces

— multinational ground forces

— multinational naval force

— multinational naval patrol forces

— multiple-based BM force

— multipurpose aircraft carrier force

— multipurpose forces

— multithreat force

— named air force

— National forces

— National Reserve forces

— NATO airborne early warning forces

— NATO forces

— NATO Naval Attack forces

— NATO Nuclear forces

— NATO Standing Naval force

— NATO Theater Nuclear Weapons forces

— NATO-assigned forces

— NATO-command forces

— NATO-committed forces

— naval air forces

— naval assault force

— Naval Attack and Support force

— naval emergency ground defense force

— naval force

— Naval forces

— naval local defense forces

— Naval Mobile Support forces

— naval operating forces

— naval power projection forces

— naval presence forces

— naval surface force

— Navy Special forces

— NBC forces

— near-term prepositioned force

— near-term prepositioning force

— New Defensive Nuclear forces

— non-aligned forces

— non-allocated forces

— non-ICBM forces

— non-NATO forces

— nonnuclear forces

— nonorganic forces

— non-US NATO forces

— Northern Air Defense force

— notional force

— nuclear capable forces

— nuclear delivery forces

— nuclear deterrent forces

— nuclear forces of tactical range category

— nuclear forces

— nuclear military forces

— Nuclear Missile Submarine force

— nuclear reprisal forces

— nuclear retaliation forces

— nuclear retaliatory forces

— nuclear strike and attack forces

— nuclear striking force

— nuclear-nonnuclear force

— numbered air force

— numerically superior forces

— observer forces

— occupation force

— offensive air force

— offensive forces

— offensive-oriented forces

— office force

— on-call force

— on-call search-strike ASW forces

— one-shot force

— on-line forces

— operating forces

— operational development forces

— operational forces

— operational strategic nuclear forces

— opposing forces

— orange forces

— organic forces

— other forces for NATO

— outpost forces

— overseas Armed forces

— overseas operations striking forces

— overt irregular force

— own forces

— Pacific Air force

— packaged forces

— Parachute Contingency force

— paramilitary forces

— paramilitary police forces

— peace-keeping forces

— phase forces into the objective area

— pit forces

— pivot force

— police force

— power projection forces

— preemptive counter force

— primary action force

— professional volunteer forces

— protect force

— proxy forces

— public school cadet force

— pure tank force

— quadripartite forces

— quantitatively superior forces

— quasi-military force

— quick deployment forces

— quick reaction alert fighter force

— quick reaction alert forces

— quick-reaction aircraft carrier forces

— quick-reaction forces

— quick-strike forces

— radar hunter-killer force

— RAF general purpose combat forces

— raiding force

— rapid defense force

— rapid deployment force standby forces

— rapid deployment force

— rapid response air-ground task force

— rapidly deployable Army combat forces

— rapid-reaction forces

— reaction force

— readiness force

— ready reserve force

— rear area security forces

— rear covering force

— reconnaissance air force

— reconstitute forces

— recycle forces

— red forces

— reflex forces

— regional forces

— regional nuclear forces

— Regular Air forces

— regular forces

— reinforcement force

— reinforcing force

— relief force

— reserve force

— residual forces

— residual ground forces in the area

— response forces

— responsive forces

— restricted force

— retaliatory forces

— river assault interdiction forces

— riverine force

— robot air force

— Royal Air force

— Royal Auxiliary Air forces

— Royal Marine amphibious forces

— Royal Marine Commando forces

— rupture force

— satellite forces

— scouting force

— scrap force

— screening force

— sea frontier forces

— sea-based forces

— sea-communications protection forces

— sea-control forces

— sea-denial forces

— sea-lane protection forces

— sealift force

— search and strike force

— second echelon forces

— second echelon maneuver forces

— security assistance force

— security forces

— service force

— sign up with the forces

— signal force

— silo forces

— similar-type forces

— single-strike force

— skeleton forces

— Southern Air Defense forces

— special action forces

— special air warfare forces

— special boat forces

— special forces for emergency employment

— special landing forces

— Special Mission forces

— special operating forces

— special reinforcement forces

— special use forces

— specialist reinforcement force

— split up forces

— standby forces

— standing forces

— standing naval force

— Standing Reserve force

— stationary missile forces

— stave enemy forces

— strategic air forces

— strategic airlift forces

— strategic Army forces CB

— strategic aviation forces

— strategic defensive force

— strategic deterrent forces

— strategic forces

— strategic lift forces

— strategic missile forces

— strategic mobile forces

— strategic mobility forces

— strategic nuclear forces

— strategic offensive forces

— strategic projection forces

— strategic reserve engineer forces

— strategic reserve forces

— strategic retaliatory forces

— strategic striking forces

— strategic survival forces

— strategic/tactical nuclear force

— Strike Command tanker force

— strike force

— subconventional force

— submarine forces

— submarine striking forces

— submerged forces

— superior forces

— supervisory forces

— supply forces

— support forces

— supporting air forces

— supporting forces

— suppression forces

— suppression strike force

— surface assault force

— surface combatant forces

— surface striking force

— surrogate forces

— survivable retaliatory forces

— survival forces

— swing forces

— switch forces

— tactical air force

— tactical air strike force

— tactical airborne force

— tactical forces

— tactical nuclear-capable forces

— tactical reinforcement forces

— tactical theater nuclear forces

— tactically committed forces

— tank destroyer forces

— tank force

— tanker force

— task air force

— task force

— territorial forces

— territorial security forces

— theater air defense forces

— Theater Allied Air forces

— Theater Allied forces

— Theater Allied Land forces

— Theater Allied Naval forces

— theater forces

— theater nuclear forces

— threat forces

— tie-down forces

— token force

— Total forces

— transport air force

— trip wire forces

— troop forces

— troop-carrier force

— truce forces

— turning force

— type force

— UK Air forces

— UK Land forces CB

— UK Mobile force

— UN Disengagement Observer forces

— UN Emergency forces

— UN Interim force in Lebanon

— uncommitted force

— unconventional warfare forces

— unengaged forces

— unilateral forces

— uniservice force

— united forces

— universal cover force

— US Air forces

— US Armed forces

— vacuum forces

— visiting armed force

— voluntary reserve forces

— war-limiting forces

— wartime augmentation force

— withdrawing force

— Women's Auxiliary Air force

English-Russian military dictionary > force(s)
16 force(s)

сила; группа; группировка; формирования; части и соединения [подразделения]; мор. отряд; соединение; pl. войска, силы; вооруженные силы, ВС; форсировать

ACE mobile force(s), Air — мобильные ВВС ОВС НАТО в Европе

ACE mobile force(s), Land — мобильные СВ ОВС НАТО в Европе

Air forces, Gulf — Бр. ВВС в районе Персидского залива

Air forces, Northern Army Group BBC — Северной группы армий (ОВС НАТО в Европе)

Allied forces, Central [Northern, Southern] Europe — ОВС НАТО на Центрально-Европейском [Северо-Европейском, Южно-Европейском] ТВД

Allied forces, Europe OBC — НАТО в Европе

Allied Land forces, Northern [Southern] Europe — ОСВ НАТО на Северо-Европейском [Южно-Европейском] ТВД

Allied Naval forces, Northern [Southern] Europe — ОВМС НАТО на Северо-Европейском [Южно-Европейском] ТВД

carrier submarine detection [search] and striking force — ПЛ авианосная поисково-ударная группа

earmarked (for assignment) forces — войска [силы], выделенные [предназначенные] для передачи в оперативное подчинение (командования НАТО)

insert a force (into the area) — высаживать десант; десантировать (часть, подразделение)

Marine (Corps) land combat forces — наземные боевые силы МП

Marine (Corps) operating forces — оперативные силы МП

Mobile ACE force (Land) — сухопутный компонент мобильных сил ОВС НАТО в Европе

mobile logistical (support) force — соединение сил [судов] подвижного тылового обеспечения (ВМС)

mobile logistics (support) force — соединение сил [судов] подвижного тылового обеспечения (ВМС)

NATO-earmarked (for assignment) forces — войска, выделенные [предназначенные] для передачи в оперативное подчинение командования НАТО

On-Call Naval force, Mediterranean — оперативное соединение ОВМС НАТО на Средиземном море для действий по вызову

rapid deployment force, Air — авиационный компонент СВР

rapid deployment force, Army — сухопутный компонент СВР

rapid deployment force, Navy — военноморской компонент СВР

special service force (mobile command) — Кан. группа войск специального назначения (мобильного командования)

Standing Naval force, Atlantic — постоянное оперативное соединение ОВМС НАТО на Атлантике

UN Peace Keeping forces, Cyprus — ВС ООН по поддержанию мира на Кипре

US forces, Europe — ВС США в Европейской зоне

— ACE mobile forces

— active duty force

— active duty ground forces

— active forces

— active strategic airlift forces

— ad hoc force

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— air-mission force

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— Allied Air forces OBBC

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— allied force

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— Allied mobile forces

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— Allied On-Call Naval force

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— antisubmarine force

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— Armed forces of the Crown

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— balanced collective forces

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— base force

— baseline force

— battle tank force

— battlefield forces

— blocking force

— blue forces

— blue-water force

— BM force

— bomber force

— bomber-missile force

— border-security forces

— breaching force

— breakthrough force

— bridgehead covering forces

— British forces

— build-up force

— build-up forces

— capital intensive forces

— career intensive force

— carrier air forces

— carrier battle force

— carrier force

— carrier search and attack force

— carrier striking force

— carrier-based naval air forces

— cat's-paw force

— Central Air Defense force

— citizens military forces

— civilian work force

— clandestine forces

— clerical stenographic force

— coalition forces

— coast missile/cannon forces

— coastal force

— collective forces OBC

— combat air force

— combat engineer forces

— combat force

— combat logistics forces

— combat maneuver force

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— composite air strike force

— contact force

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— counterintelligence force

— countermove force

— counterpenetration force

— counterstrike force

— covering force

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— crossing force

— cruiser-destroyer force

— custodian force

— cutoff force

— cutting edge forces

— D-day forces

— deep penetration forces

— defending force

— defense forces

— defensive air force

— defensive forces

— delaying force

— deployable forces

— deployed forces

— destruction force

— detached force

— deterrent forces

— deterrent-oriented nuclear forces

— development forces

— direct pressure forces

— disengagement forces

— district forces

— divert forces from

— division ready force

— divisional forces

— draw off enemy forces

— dual-based forces

— dual-capable forces

— dual-purpose forces

— early readiness forces

— earmarked for assignment on mobilization forces

— economize forces on one front

— economy force

— effective forces

— emergency reaction forces

— emergency recovery forces

— encircling force

— enemy-oriented force

— enhanced combined arms force

— enveloping force

— erode enemy forces

— escort forces

— establish a force ashore

— European Defense forces

— European nuclear forces

— European theater ground forces

— Eurostrategic nuclear forces

— EW forces

— execute force

— expeditionary forces

— expeditionary lodgement forces

— experimental naval forces

— exploiting force

— external force

— extraterrestrial defense forces

— extraterritorial intervention forces

— fast carrier force

— fast landing force

— field force

— field forces

— field tactical force

— fighter bomber attack force

— firing reconnaissance force

— fixing force

— flank covering force

— Fleet Marine Air force

— Fleet Marine force

— Fleet Submarine forces

— Fleet Surface forces

— fleet-based air force

— flexible response force

— flying forces

— follow and support forces

— follow-on forces

— follow-up forces

— footmobile forces

— force back

— force down

— force of arms

— force off

— force out

— forces allocated to NATO

— forces from outside the area

— forces with colours

— foreign-stationed forces

— forward area defensive forces

— forward combat forces

— forward forces

— forward frontier defense forces

— forward tactically committed forces

— forward-based forces

— fragment forces

— friendly forces

— frontier-guarding force

— front-line forces

— garrison forces

— general covering force

— general nuclear war force

— general purpose forces

— general purpose strategic forces

— general support forces

— ground combat forces

— ground forces

— ground mobile forces

— ground-gaining forces

— guard force

— guerrilla force

— Gurkha field force

— heliborne forces

— helicopter assault force

— Her Majesty forces

— high-mix force

— holding force

— Home Defence Air force

— Home Defence forces

— Home forces

— Home Service forces

— hunter-killer force

— hydrofoil assault force

— immediate reaction force

— immediate ready force

— immediate reserve forces

— in force

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— indigenous forces

— infantry force

— initial protective forces

— initial reaction forces

— in-place forces

— instant-reaction forces

— insurgent paramilitary forces

— insurgent tactical forces

— integrated combined arms force

— Interallied Nuclear force

— intercontinental attack forces

— intercontinental forces

— intermediate range nuclear forces

— international forces

— international military forces

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— invading force

— invasion force

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— land forces

— Land Marine forces

— land special security forces

— land-based air forces

— land-based force

— land-based naval air force

— land-based strategic missile forces

— land-based strategic offensive forces

— landing force

— left-in-contact forces

— light naval forces

— linked-up force

— link-up force

— local forces

— local police forces

— lodgement forces

— logistics support forces

— long-range attack forces

— long-range nuclear strike force

— long-range theater nuclear forces

— MAC force

— main attack force

— main battle area forces

— main battle forces

— main defensive forces

— main fighting forces

— major allied force

— major forces

— makeshift force

— maneuver and exploitation force

— maneuver force

— maneuvering force

— maneuver-oriented force

— Marine Air forces

— Marine amphibious force

— Marine Corps operating forces not otherwise assigned

— Marine Corps Security forces

— Marine Corps Service forces

— Marine Defense forces

— Marine expeditionary force

— Marine ground forces

— maritime forces

— maritime response force

— Maritime Self-Defense force

— massed threat armor force

— master-at-arms force

— match forces

— M-day forces

— M-day mobile ground forces

— mechanized force

— member air forces

— member forces

— Middle East force

— military air forces

— military airlift forces

— military force

— mine-sweeping forces

— missile defense forces

— missile force

— mixed fighter force

— mixed force

— mixed silo-mobile field launcher missile forces

— mobile air forces

— mobile AT force

— mobile counterattack forces

— mobile exploiting forces

— mobile forces

— mobile forward forces

— mobile land forces

— mobile maritime forces

— mobile nuclear forces

— mobile striking force

— mobile support force

— mobile world-wide striking force

— mobility forces

— mobility support forces

— mobilization forces

— motorized rifle forces

— mountain infantry forces

— mounted force

— multilateral forces

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— multimission forces

— multinational forces

— multinational ground forces

— multinational naval force

— multinational naval patrol forces

— multiple-based BM force

— multipurpose aircraft carrier force

— multipurpose forces

— multithreat force

— named air force

— National forces

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— NATO airborne early warning forces

— NATO forces

— NATO Naval Attack forces

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— NATO Standing Naval force

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— NATO-assigned forces

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— NATO-committed forces

— naval air forces

— naval assault force

— Naval Attack and Support force

— naval emergency ground defense force

— naval force

— Naval forces

— naval local defense forces

— Naval Mobile Support forces

— naval operating forces

— naval power projection forces

— naval presence forces

— naval surface force

— Navy Special forces

— NBC forces

— near-term prepositioned force

— near-term prepositioning force

— New Defensive Nuclear forces

— non-aligned forces

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— non-ICBM forces

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— nonnuclear forces

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— Northern Air Defense force

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— nuclear capable forces

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— nuclear forces of tactical range category

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— Nuclear Missile Submarine force

— nuclear reprisal forces

— nuclear retaliation forces

— nuclear retaliatory forces

— nuclear strike and attack forces

— nuclear striking force

— nuclear-nonnuclear force

— numbered air force

— numerically superior forces

— observer forces

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— office force

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— paramilitary forces

— paramilitary police forces

— peace-keeping forces

— phase forces into the objective area

— pit forces

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— primary action force

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— public school cadet force

— pure tank force

— quadripartite forces

— quantitatively superior forces

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— quick deployment forces

— quick reaction alert fighter force

— quick reaction alert forces

— quick-reaction aircraft carrier forces

— quick-reaction forces

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— radar hunter-killer force

— RAF general purpose combat forces

— raiding force

— rapid defense force

— rapid deployment force standby forces

— rapid deployment force

— rapid response air-ground task force

— rapidly deployable Army combat forces

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— reaction force

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— rear area security forces

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— red forces

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— Regular Air forces

— regular forces

— reinforcement force

— reinforcing force

— relief force

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— residual ground forces in the area

— response forces

— responsive forces

— restricted force

— retaliatory forces

— river assault interdiction forces

— riverine force

— robot air force

— Royal Air force

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— Royal Marine amphibious forces

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— rupture force

— satellite forces

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— sea frontier forces

— sea-based forces

— sea-communications protection forces

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— sea-denial forces

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— sealift force

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— second echelon forces

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— sign up with the forces

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— UK Air forces

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— uncommitted force

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English-Russian military dictionary > force(s)
17 break

break [breɪk]

casser ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (c) briser ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (i), 1 (j) fracturer ⇒ 1 (b) enfoncer ⇒ 1 (e) violer, enfreindre ⇒ 1 (f) rompre ⇒ 1 (h) couper ⇒ 1 (h) ruiner ⇒ 1 (k) amortir ⇒ 1 (l) se casser ⇒ 2 (a) se briser ⇒ 2 (a) se fracturer ⇒ 2 (b) cassure, brisure ⇒ 3 (a) fissure, fente ⇒ 3 (b) ouverture ⇒ 3 (c) interruption ⇒ 3 (d) pause ⇒ 3 (e) évasion ⇒ 3 (f) chance ⇒ 3 (g) changement ⇒ 3 (h)

(pt broke [brəʊk], pp broken ['brəʊkn])

1 transitive verb

(a) (split into pieces → glass, furniture) casser, briser; (→ branch, lace, string, egg, toy) casser;

∎ break the stick in two cassez le bâton en deux;

∎ to break sth into pieces mettre qch en morceaux;

∎ to get broken se casser;

∎ to break a safe forcer un coffre-fort;

∎ Religion to break bread (priest) administrer la communion; (congregation) recevoir la communion;

∎ figurative to break bread with sb partager le repas de qn;

∎ figurative to break sb's heart briser le cœur à qn;

∎ Ross broke her heart Ross lui a brisé le cœur;

∎ it breaks my heart to see her unhappy ça me brise le cœur de la voir malheureuse;

∎ figurative to break the ice rompre ou briser la glace

(b) Medicine (fracture) casser, fracturer;

∎ to break one's leg se casser ou se fracturer la jambe;

∎ to break one's neck se casser ou se rompre le cou;

∎ the fall broke his back la chute lui a brisé les reins;

∎ familiar figurative to break one's back s'échiner;

∎ familiar figurative they broke their backs trying to get the job done ils se sont éreintés à finir le travail;

∎ familiar we've broken the back of the job nous avons fait le plus gros du travail;

∎ familiar I'll break his neck if I catch him doing it again! je lui tords le cou si je le reprends à faire ça!;

∎ familiar figurative break a leg! merde! (pour souhaiter bonne chance)

(c) (render inoperable → appliance, machine) casser;

∎ you've broken the TV tu as cassé la télé

(d) (cut surface of → ground) entamer; (→ skin) écorcher; Law (seals → illegally) briser; (legally) lever;

∎ the seal on the coffee jar was broken le pot de café avait été ouvert;

∎ the skin isn't broken la peau n'est pas écorchée;

∎ to break new or fresh ground innover, faire œuvre de pionnier;

∎ scientists are breaking new or fresh ground in cancer research les savants font une percée dans la recherche contre le cancer

(e) (force a way through) enfoncer;

∎ the river broke its banks la rivière est sortie de son lit;

∎ to break the sound barrier franchir le mur du son;

∎ to break surface (diver, whale) remonter à la surface; Nautical (submarine) faire surface

(f) Law (violate → law, rule) violer, enfreindre; (→ speed limit) dépasser; (→ agreement, treaty) violer; (→ contract) rompre; (→ promise) manquer à; Religion (→ commandment) désobéir à; (→ Sabbath) ne pas respecter;

∎ she broke her appointment with them elle a annulé son rendez-vous avec eux;

∎ he broke his word to her il a manqué à la parole qu'il lui avait donnée;

∎ Law to break parole = commettre un délit qui entraîne la révocation de la mise en liberté conditionnelle;

∎ Military to break bounds violer la consigne

(g) (escape from, leave suddenly) Law

∎ to break jail s'évader (de prison);

∎ to break camp lever le camp;

∎ to break cover (animal) être débusqué; (person) sortir à découvert

(h) (interrupt → fast, monotony, spell) rompre; Electricity (→ circuit, current) couper; Typography (→ word, page) couper;

∎ we broke our journey at Brussels nous avons fait une étape à Bruxelles;

∎ a cry broke the silence un cri a déchiré ou percé le silence;

∎ the plain was broken only by an occasional small settlement la plaine n'était interrompue que par de rares petits hameaux;

∎ Military to break step rompre le pas

(i) (put an end to → strike) briser; (→ uprising) mater;

∎ the new offer broke the deadlock la nouvelle proposition a permis de sortir de l'impasse;

∎ he's tried to stop smoking but he can't break the habit il a essayé d'arrêter de fumer mais il n'arrive pas à se débarrasser ou se défaire de l'habitude;

∎ to break sb of a habit corriger ou guérir qn d'une habitude;

∎ to break oneself of a habit se corriger ou se défaire d'une habitude

(j) (wear down, destroy → enemy) détruire; (→ person, will, courage, resistance) briser; (→ witness) réfuter; (→ health) abîmer; (→ alibi) écarter;

∎ torture did not break him or his spirit il a résisté à la torture;

∎ this scandal could break them ce scandale pourrait signer leur perte;

∎ the experience will either make or break him l'expérience lui sera ou salutaire ou fatale

(k) (bankrupt) ruiner;

∎ her new business will either make or break her sa nouvelle affaire la rendra riche ou la ruinera;

∎ to break the bank (exhaust funds) faire sauter la banque;

∎ humorous buying a book won't break the bank! acheter un livre ne te/nous/ etc ruinera pas!

(l) (soften → fall) amortir, adoucir;

∎ we planted a row of trees to break the wind nous avons planté une rangée d'arbres pour couper le vent

(m) (reveal, tell) annoncer, révéler;

∎ break it to her gently annonce-le lui avec ménagement

(n) (beat, improve on) battre;

∎ to break a record battre un record;

∎ the golfer broke 90 le golfeur a dépassé le score de 90

(o) (solve → code) déchiffrer

(p) Sport

∎ to break sb's service (in tennis) prendre le service de qn;

∎ Hingis was broken in the fifth game Hingis a perdu son service dans le cinquième jeu

(q) (divide into parts → collection) dépareiller; (→ bank note) entamer;

∎ can you break a £10 note? pouvez-vous faire de la monnaie sur un billet de 10 livres?

(r) (horse) dresser

(s) Military (demote) casser

(t) Nautical (flag) déferler

(u) euphemism

∎ to break wind lâcher un vent

2 intransitive verb

(a) (split into pieces → glass, furniture) se casser, se briser; (→ branch, stick) se casser, se rompre; (→ lace, string, egg, toy) se casser;

∎ to break apart se casser ou se briser (en morceaux);

∎ the plate broke in two l'assiette s'est cassée en deux;

∎ to break into pieces se casser en morceaux;

∎ figurative her heart broke elle a eu le cœur brisé

(b) Medicine (fracture → bone, limb) se fracturer;

∎ is the bone broken? y a-t-il une fracture?;

∎ humorous any bones broken? rien de cassé?

(c) (become inoperable → lock, tool) casser; (→ machine) tomber en panne;

∎ the dishwasher broke last week le lave-vaisselle est tombé en panne la semaine dernière

(d) (disperse → clouds) se disperser, se dissiper; Military (→ troops) rompre les rangs; (→ ranks) se rompre

(e) (escape)

∎ to break free se libérer;

∎ the ship broke loose from its moorings le bateau a rompu ses amarres

(f) (fail → health, person, spirit) se détériorer;

∎ the witness broke under questioning le témoin a craqué au cours de l'interrogatoire;

∎ she or her spirit did not break elle ne s'est pas laissée abattre;

∎ their courage finally broke leur courage a fini par les abandonner

(g) (take a break) faire une pause;

∎ let's break for coffee arrêtons-nous pour prendre un café

(h) (arise suddenly → day) se lever, poindre; (→ dawn) poindre; Press & Television (→ news) être annoncé; (→ scandal, war) éclater

(i) (move suddenly) se précipiter, foncer

(j) (weather) changer; (storm) éclater

(k) (voice → of boy) muer; (→ with emotion) se briser;

∎ she was so upset that her voice kept breaking elle était tellement bouleversée que sa voix se brisait

(l) (wave) déferler;

∎ the sea was breaking against the rocks les vagues se brisaient sur les rochers

(m) Obstetrics

∎ her waters have broken elle a perdu les eaux

(n) American familiar (happen) se passer^□, arriver^□ ;

∎ to break right/badly bien/mal se passer

(o) Linguistics (vowel) se diphtonguer

(p) Sport (boxers) se dégager;

∎ break! break!, stop!

(q) Sport (ball) dévier

(r) Sport (in billiards, snooker, pool) donner l'acquit

(s) (idiom)

∎ to break even (gen) s'y retrouver; Finance rentrer dans ses frais

3 noun

(a) (in china, glass) cassure f, brisure f; (in wood) cassure f, rupture f; Medicine (in bone, limb) fracture f; figurative (with friend, group) rupture f; (in marriage) séparation f;

∎ a clean break (in object) une cassure nette; Medicine (in bone) une fracture simple;

∎ the break with her husband was a painful experience ça a été très pénible pour elle quand elle s'est séparée de son mari;

∎ her break with the party in 1968 sa rupture avec le parti en 1968;

∎ to make a clean break with the past rompre avec le passé

(b) (crack) fissure f, fente f

(c) (gap → in hedge, wall) trouée f, ouverture f; Geology (→ in rock) faille f; (→ in line) interruption f, rupture f; Typography (→ in word) césure f; (→ in pagination) fin f de page;

∎ a break in the clouds une éclaircie

(d) (interruption → in conversation) interruption f, pause f; (→ in payment) interruption f, suspension f; (→ in trip) arrêt m; (→ in production) suspension f, rupture f; (→ in series) interruption f; Literature & Music pause f; (in jazz) break m;

∎ guitar break (in rock) (courte) improvisation f de guitare;

∎ Electricity a break in the circuit une coupure de courant;

∎ Radio a break for commercials, a (commercial) break un intermède de publicité; Television un écran publicitaire, une page de publicité;

∎ Television a break in transmission une interruption des programmes (due à un incident technique)

(e) (rest) pause f; (holiday) vacances fpl; British School récréation f;

∎ let's take a break on fait une pause?;

∎ we worked all morning without a break nous avons travaillé toute la matinée sans nous arrêter;

∎ he drove for three hours without a break il a conduit trois heures de suite;

∎ you need a break (short rest) tu as besoin de faire une pause; (holiday) tu as besoin de vacances;

∎ an hour's break for lunch une heure de pause pour le déjeuner;

∎ lunch break pause f de midi;

∎ do you get a lunch break? tu as une pause à midi?;

∎ a weekend in the country makes a pleasant break un week-end à la campagne fait du bien;

∎ familiar give me a break! (don't talk nonsense) dis pas n'importe quoi!; (stop nagging) fiche-moi la paix!

(f) (escape) évasion f, fuite f;

∎ Law jail break évasion f (de prison);

∎ she made a break for the woods elle s'est élancée vers le bois;

∎ to make a break for it prendre la fuite

(g) familiar (opportunity) chance^□ f; (luck) (coup m de) veine f;

∎ you get all the breaks! tu en as du pot!;

∎ to have a lucky break avoir de la veine;

∎ to have a bad break manquer de veine;

∎ this could be your big break ça pourrait être la chance de ta vie;

∎ she's never had an even break in her life rien n'a jamais été facile dans sa vie;

∎ give him a break donne-lui une chance; (he won't do it again) donne-lui une seconde chance

(h) (change) changement m;

∎ a break in the weather un changement de temps;

∎ the decision signalled a break with tradition la décision marquait une rupture avec la tradition

(i) (carriage) break m

(j) literary

∎ at break of day au point du jour, à l'aube

(k) Sport

∎ to have a service break or a break (of serve) (in tennis) avoir une rupture de service (de l'adversaire);

∎ to have two break points (in tennis) avoir deux balles de break;

∎ he made a 70 break (in snooker, pool etc) il a fait une série de 70

►► Computing break character caractère m d'interruption;

Computing break key touche f d'interruption

➲ break away

1 intransitive verb

(a) (move away) se détacher; (escape) s'évader;

∎ I broke away from the crowd je me suis éloigné de la foule;

∎ he broke away from her grasp il s'est dégagé de son étreinte

(b) (end association with) rompre; (province → from State) se séparer;

∎ a group of MPs broke away from the party un groupe de députés a quitté le parti;

∎ as a band they have broken away from traditional jazz leur groupe a (complètement) rompu avec le jazz traditionnel

(c) Sport (in racing, cycling) s'échapper, se détacher du peloton

2 separable transitive verb

détacher;

∎ they broke all the fittings away from the walls ils ont décroché toutes les appliques des murs

➲ break back intransitive verb

(in tennis) = gagner le service de son adversaire après avoir perdu son propre service

➲ break down

1 intransitive verb

(a) (vehicle, machine) tomber en panne;

∎ the car has broken down la voiture est en panne

(b) (fail → health) se détériorer; (→ authority) disparaître; (→ argument, system, resistance) s'effondrer; (→ negotiations, relations, plan) échouer;

∎ radio communications broke down le contact radio a été coupé;

∎ their marriage is breaking down leur mariage se désagrège

(c) (lose one's composure) s'effondrer;

∎ to break down in tears fondre en larmes

(d) (divide) se diviser;

∎ the report breaks down into three parts le rapport comprend ou est composé de trois parties

(e) Chemistry se décomposer;

∎ to break down into sth se décomposer en qch

2 separable transitive verb

(a) (destroy → barrier) démolir, abattre; (→ door) enfoncer; figurative (→ resistance) briser;

∎ we must break down old prejudices il faut mettre fin aux vieux préjugés

(b) (analyse → idea, statistics) analyser; (→ reasons) décomposer; (→ account, figures, expenses) décomposer, ventiler; (→ bill, estimate) détailler; (→ substance) décomposer;

∎ the problem can be broken down into three parts le problème peut se décomposer en trois parties

➲ break forth intransitive verb

literary (light) jaillir; (storm, buds) éclater; (blossom) s'épanouir subitement

➲ break in

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (train → person) former; (→ horse) dresser;

∎ a month should be enough to break you in to the job un mois devrait suffire pour vous faire ou vous habituer au métier

(b) (clothing) porter (pour user);

∎ I want to break these shoes in je veux que ces chaussures se fassent

(c) (knock down → door) enfoncer

2 intransitive verb

(a) Law (burglar) entrer par effraction

(b) (speaker) interrompre;

∎ to break in on sb/sth interrompre qn/qch

➲ break into inseparable transitive verb

(a) (of burglar) entrer par effraction dans; (drawer) forcer;

∎ they broke into the safe ils ont fracturé ou forcé le coffre-fort;

∎ they've been broken into three times ils se sont fait cambrioler trois fois

(b) (begin suddenly)

∎ the audience broke into applause le public s'est mis à applaudir;

∎ to break into a run/sprint se mettre à courir/à sprinter;

∎ the horse broke into a gallop le cheval a pris le galop

(c) (conversation) interrompre

(d) (start to spend → savings) entamer;

∎ I don't want to break into a £20 note je ne veux pas entamer un billet de 20 livres

(e) Commerce (market) percer sur;

∎ the firm has broken into the Japanese market l'entreprise a percé sur le marché japonais

➲ break off

1 intransitive verb

(a) (separate) se détacher, se casser;

∎ a branch has broken off une branche s'est détachée (de l'arbre)

(b) (stop) s'arrêter brusquement;

∎ he broke off in mid-sentence il s'est arrêté au milieu d'une phrase;

∎ they broke off from work (for rest) ils ont fait une pause; (for day) ils ont cessé le travail;

∎ to break off for ten minutes prendre dix minutes de pause;

∎ to break off for lunch s'arrêter pour déjeuner

(c) (end relationship) rompre;

∎ she's broken off with him elle a rompu avec lui

2 separable transitive verb

(a) (separate) détacher, casser;

∎ to break sth off sth casser ou détacher qch de qch

(b) (end → agreement, relationship) rompre;

∎ they've broken off their engagement ils ont rompu leurs fiançailles;

∎ to break it off (with sb) rompre (avec qn);

∎ Italy had broken off diplomatic relations with Libya l'Italie avait rompu ses relations diplomatiques avec la Libye

➲ break open separable transitive verb

(door) enfoncer; (lock, safe, till) forcer; familiar (bottle of wine etc) ouvrir^□, déboucher^□ ;

∎ to break a desk open ouvrir un bureau en forçant la serrure

➲ break out

1 intransitive verb

(a) (begin → war, storm) éclater; (→ disease, fire) se déclarer; (→ fight) se déclencher

(b) (become covered)

∎ to break out in spots or in a rash avoir une éruption de boutons;

∎ to break out in a sweat se mettre à transpirer;

∎ she broke out in a cold sweat elle s'est mise à avoir des sueurs froides

(c) (escape) s'échapper;

∎ to break out from or of prison s'évader (de prison);

∎ we have to break out of this vicious circle il faut que nous sortions de ce cercle vicieux

2 separable transitive verb

(bottle, champagne) ouvrir

➲ break through

1 inseparable transitive verb

(sun) percer;

∎ I broke through the crowd je me suis frayé un chemin à travers la foule;

∎ the troops broke through enemy lines les troupes ont enfoncé les lignes ennemies;

∎ she eventually broke through his reserve elle a fini par le faire sortir de sa réserve

2 intransitive verb

percer; figurative & Military faire une percée;

∎ figurative his hidden feelings tend to break through in his writing ses sentiments cachés tendent à transparaître ou percer dans ses écrits

➲ break up

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (divide up → rocks) briser, morceler; Law (→ property) morceler; (→ soil) ameublir; (→ bread, cake) partager;

∎ she broke the loaf up into four pieces elle a rompu ou partagé la miche en quatre;

∎ illustrations break up the text le texte est aéré par des illustrations

(b) (destroy → house) démolir; (→ road) défoncer

(c) (end → fight, party) mettre fin à, arrêter; Commerce & Law (→ conglomerate, trust) scinder, diviser; Commerce (→ company) scinder; Politics (→ coalition) briser, rompre; Administration (→ organization) dissoudre; (→ empire) démembrer; (→ family) séparer;

∎ his drinking broke up their marriage le fait qu'il buvait a brisé ou détruit leur mariage

(d) (disperse → crowd) disperser;

∎ break it up! (people fighting or arguing) arrêtez!; (said by policeman) circulez!

(e) familiar (distress) bouleverser, retourner;

∎ the news really broke her up la nouvelle l'a complètement bouleversée

(f) American familiar (amuse)

∎ her stories really break me up! ses histoires me font bien marrer!

2 intransitive verb

(a) (split into pieces → road, system) se désagréger; (→ ice) craquer, se fissurer; (→ ship) se disloquer;

∎ the ship broke up on the rocks le navire s'est disloqué sur les rochers

(b) (come to an end → meeting, party) se terminer, prendre fin; (→ partnership) cesser, prendre fin; (→ talks, negotiations) cesser;

∎ when the meeting broke up à l'issue ou à la fin de la réunion;

∎ their marriage broke up leur mariage n'a pas marché

(c) (boyfriend, girlfriend) rompre;

∎ she broke up with her boyfriend elle a rompu avec son petit ami;

∎ they've broken up ils se sont séparés

(d) (disperse → clouds) se disperser; (→ group) se disperser; (→ friends) se quitter, se séparer

(e) British School

∎ we break up for Christmas on the 22nd les vacances de Noël commencent le 22;

∎ when do we break up? quand est-ce qu'on est en vacances?

(f) (lose one's composure) s'effondrer

(g) American familiar (laugh) se tordre de rire

➲ break with inseparable transitive verb

(a) (end association with → person, organization) rompre avec;

∎ the defeat caused many people to break with the party la défaite a poussé beaucoup de gens à rompre avec le parti

(b) (depart from → belief, values) rompre avec;

∎ she broke with tradition by getting married away from her village elle a rompu avec la tradition en ne se mariant pas dans son village

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > break
18 MIC

1) Общая лексика: ОПК (military-industrial complex), минимальная доза ингибитора (minimum inhibiting concentration), minimum igniting current

2) Компьютерная техника: medium-interface connector

3) Медицина: minimal inhibitory concentration, morbus ischaemicus cordis

4) Спорт: Make It Count

5) Военный термин: MLRS International Corporation, Management Indicator Code, Maritime Intelligence Center, Meteorological Information Committee, Military Intelligence Committee, Multinational Intelligence Cell, maintenance information center, maintenance information chart, management information center, message identification code, mid-intensity conflict, military industrial complex, monitoring, identification, and correlation

6) Техника: marine information center, methyl isothiocyanate, microbiologically induced corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion, microscopic, microwave interference coordination, mutual interference chart

7) Химия: метилизоцианат ( Methyl isocyanate)

8) Юридический термин: Minor In Consumption

9) Автомобильный термин: mechanical instrument cluster

10) Телекоммуникации: Medium Interface Connector (FDDI)

11) Сокращение: MLRS International Corp. (UK), Media (medium) interface connector, Microwave Integrated Circuit, Military-Industrial Complex (Russia), microphone, Message Integrity Check, Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, Middle-In-Chain, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration

12) Физика: Measuring Ionization Chamber

13) Электроника: Monolithic Integrated Circuits

14) Вычислительная техника: Management Information Centers, Management Integration Consortium, Memory In Cassette, Message Integrity Check / Code, microelectronic integrated circuit, monolithic integrated circuit, multimedia interactive control, Media Interface Connector (FDDI, PMD), Multiple Interface Connection (Kyocera), Memory in Cassette (Seagate, EEPROM, Streamer, AIT)

15) Микробиология: minimum inhibitory concentration (минимальная подавляющая концентрация)

16) Транспорт: Maximum Import Capacity

17) Фирменный знак: Music Industry Coalition

18) СМИ: Movie Item Collection

19) Деловая лексика: Made In Canada, Market Intelligence Center, Meetings Industry Council

20) Сетевые технологии: medium interface connector, Консорциум по интеграции средств сетевого управления, Консорциум по объединению систем управления, интерфейсный соединитель со средой, соединитель для подключения терминала к интерфейсу шины

21) Безопасность: message integrity code

22) Расширение файла: Master Interrupt Control, Microsoft Image Composer Data

23) Электротехника: marketing interface to customer

24) ООН: Man In Charge

25) Должность: Midget In Charge, Music Industry Consultant

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > MIC
19 Mic

1) Общая лексика: ОПК (military-industrial complex), минимальная доза ингибитора (minimum inhibiting concentration), minimum igniting current

2) Компьютерная техника: medium-interface connector

3) Медицина: minimal inhibitory concentration, morbus ischaemicus cordis

4) Спорт: Make It Count

5) Военный термин: MLRS International Corporation, Management Indicator Code, Maritime Intelligence Center, Meteorological Information Committee, Military Intelligence Committee, Multinational Intelligence Cell, maintenance information center, maintenance information chart, management information center, message identification code, mid-intensity conflict, military industrial complex, monitoring, identification, and correlation

6) Техника: marine information center, methyl isothiocyanate, microbiologically induced corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion, microscopic, microwave interference coordination, mutual interference chart

7) Химия: метилизоцианат ( Methyl isocyanate)

8) Юридический термин: Minor In Consumption

9) Автомобильный термин: mechanical instrument cluster

10) Телекоммуникации: Medium Interface Connector (FDDI)

11) Сокращение: MLRS International Corp. (UK), Media (medium) interface connector, Microwave Integrated Circuit, Military-Industrial Complex (Russia), microphone, Message Integrity Check, Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, Middle-In-Chain, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration

12) Физика: Measuring Ionization Chamber

13) Электроника: Monolithic Integrated Circuits

14) Вычислительная техника: Management Information Centers, Management Integration Consortium, Memory In Cassette, Message Integrity Check / Code, microelectronic integrated circuit, monolithic integrated circuit, multimedia interactive control, Media Interface Connector (FDDI, PMD), Multiple Interface Connection (Kyocera), Memory in Cassette (Seagate, EEPROM, Streamer, AIT)

15) Микробиология: minimum inhibitory concentration (минимальная подавляющая концентрация)

16) Транспорт: Maximum Import Capacity

17) Фирменный знак: Music Industry Coalition

18) СМИ: Movie Item Collection

19) Деловая лексика: Made In Canada, Market Intelligence Center, Meetings Industry Council

20) Сетевые технологии: medium interface connector, Консорциум по интеграции средств сетевого управления, Консорциум по объединению систем управления, интерфейсный соединитель со средой, соединитель для подключения терминала к интерфейсу шины

21) Безопасность: message integrity code

22) Расширение файла: Master Interrupt Control, Microsoft Image Composer Data

23) Электротехника: marketing interface to customer

24) ООН: Man In Charge

25) Должность: Midget In Charge, Music Industry Consultant

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > Mic
20 mic

1) Общая лексика: ОПК (military-industrial complex), минимальная доза ингибитора (minimum inhibiting concentration), minimum igniting current

2) Компьютерная техника: medium-interface connector

3) Медицина: minimal inhibitory concentration, morbus ischaemicus cordis

4) Спорт: Make It Count

5) Военный термин: MLRS International Corporation, Management Indicator Code, Maritime Intelligence Center, Meteorological Information Committee, Military Intelligence Committee, Multinational Intelligence Cell, maintenance information center, maintenance information chart, management information center, message identification code, mid-intensity conflict, military industrial complex, monitoring, identification, and correlation

6) Техника: marine information center, methyl isothiocyanate, microbiologically induced corrosion, microbiologically influenced corrosion, microscopic, microwave interference coordination, mutual interference chart

7) Химия: метилизоцианат ( Methyl isocyanate)

8) Юридический термин: Minor In Consumption

9) Автомобильный термин: mechanical instrument cluster

10) Телекоммуникации: Medium Interface Connector (FDDI)

11) Сокращение: MLRS International Corp. (UK), Media (medium) interface connector, Microwave Integrated Circuit, Military-Industrial Complex (Russia), microphone, Message Integrity Check, Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion, Middle-In-Chain, Minimum Inhibitory Concentration

12) Физика: Measuring Ionization Chamber

13) Электроника: Monolithic Integrated Circuits

14) Вычислительная техника: Management Information Centers, Management Integration Consortium, Memory In Cassette, Message Integrity Check / Code, microelectronic integrated circuit, monolithic integrated circuit, multimedia interactive control, Media Interface Connector (FDDI, PMD), Multiple Interface Connection (Kyocera), Memory in Cassette (Seagate, EEPROM, Streamer, AIT)

15) Микробиология: minimum inhibitory concentration (минимальная подавляющая концентрация)

16) Транспорт: Maximum Import Capacity

17) Фирменный знак: Music Industry Coalition

18) СМИ: Movie Item Collection

19) Деловая лексика: Made In Canada, Market Intelligence Center, Meetings Industry Council

20) Сетевые технологии: medium interface connector, Консорциум по интеграции средств сетевого управления, Консорциум по объединению систем управления, интерфейсный соединитель со средой, соединитель для подключения терминала к интерфейсу шины

21) Безопасность: message integrity code

22) Расширение файла: Master Interrupt Control, Microsoft Image Composer Data

23) Электротехника: marketing interface to customer

24) ООН: Man In Charge

25) Должность: Midget In Charge, Music Industry Consultant

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > mic

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См. также в других словарях:

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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military coalition

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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military coalition

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